Great White Shark
Scientific Classification: Carcharodon carcharias
Overview
The great white shark is an apex predator within the ocean’s food chain. This species of shark is the world’s largest known predatory fish found in both tropical and subtropical open seas worldwide – although it is not uncommon for it to venture into shallow areas close to beaches.
The great white shark has been depicted in many movies and documentaries, such as the 1975 American thriller “Jaws.” Despite its voracious man-eating reputation and an estimated bite force of 4,000 pounds per square inch, great white shark accounts for 37% of the total shark attacks. According to the International Shark Attack File, since 1580, there has been 351 great white shark unprovoked attacks, of those attacks, 59 were fatal.
Often, shark attacks occur from mistaking humans for their natural prey, such as seals or sea lions, especially when people are swimming or surfing at the surface. The shark’s bite is often an exploratory action to determine if the object is edible.
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Chondrichthyes
Subclass: Elasmobranchii
Subdivision: Selachimorpha
Order: Lamniformes
Family: Lamnidae
Genus: Carcharodon
Species: C. carcharias
Diet
Primarily includes marine mammals like elephant seals and sea lions, but they also eat fish, rays, whales, and occasionally seabirds and turtles.
Size
Up to 21 feet in length. Weighing up to 5,000 pounds.
Lifespan
70+ years
Conservation
Vulnerable
Features
Coloration
Great white sharks have white underbellies with a sharp contrasting shade of brown and gray back. This feature, called countershading, helps them blend seamlessly into their ocean habitat, camouflaging them from prey whether seen from above or below.
Looking up from the ocean’s depths, the shark’s white underbelly merges with the bright sunlight filtering down from the surface. When viewed from above, the shark’s darker back blends with the murky depths of the ocean, making it hard for prey swimming above or at the same depth to spot the shark.
Bite Force
The bite force of great white sharks is among the most powerful of any living animal, estimated to be about 4,000 pounds per square inch (psi) or 18,000 newtons.
Teeth
The scientific name Carcharodon carcharias comes from the Greek word ‘karcharos,’ which means sharp or jagged. Their iconic smile showcases 5-7 rows of serrated teeth, each about 2.5 inches long, shaped in broad, triangular patterns with clear serrations. Out of the roughly 300 teeth, only about 50 are active for biting – up to 28 exposed teeth on the upper jaw and 25 in the lower jaw.
The additional rows are backup teeth that are ready to step in whenever a tooth is lost or damaged. This natural process works like a conveyor belt, ensuring the shark always has a full set of teeth despite the daily wear and tear they endure.
Partially "Warm-blooded"
Even though most fish are cold-blooded, great white sharks are endothermic, meaning they can regulate their body temperature to be warmer than the surrounding water. They have specialized blood vessel structures called a “countercurrent exchanger.” Warm blood leaving the muscles flows through arteries that are closely intertwined with the veins carrying colder blood back from the gills and skin, where heat is lost to the water. As the warm and cold blood flows in opposite directions (countercurrent), heat from the warmer arterial blood is transferred to the colder venous blood. This process efficiently conserves heat within the shark’s body.
This adaptation is crucial for their hunting efficiency, enabling them to sustain high levels of activity and to inhabit colder waters where their prey might not expect such a large predator.
Smell
Great white sharks have an incredible sense of smell. Imagine a single drop of blood mixed into 10 billion drops of water – they can detect it!
Their noses are located underneath their snout, connecting to an organ known as the olfactory bulb. This bulb is the biggest among sharks in great whites – making up 18% of their brain mass.
Distribution
Great white sharks are migratory
There have been instances where great white sharks undertake long-distance round-trips from South Africa to Australia, covering an approximate distance of 12,400 miles in less than nine months.
Great white sharks thrive in both coastal and offshore pelagic waters worldwide, preferring water temperatures between 59°F and 75°F. As great white sharks mature, they undergo notable shifts in their habitats. Young sharks stay closer to shores and estuaries, while adults venture further into the open sea. The distribution of great white sharks is closely tied to the abundance of their preferred prey, such as seals, sea lions, cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises), and large fish. Adults won’t hesitate to approach shores if there’s food.
While great white sharks are primarily epipelagic (often seen near the surface), they can dive to depths of over 1,875 meters (about 6,150 feet). Their distribution spans from temperate to tropical zones, with concentrated populations off the coasts of Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Australia, Chile, and the United States. In the United States, their range extends from Maine to the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean in the Atlantic, and from Alaska to California and Hawaii in the Pacific.
Diet
Great white sharks experience a dietary shift as they grow from juveniles to adults. Young sharks often feast on fin fish, squids, stingrays, and even other smaller sharks. As they mature, their preference shifts towards larger marine mammals like elephant seals, sea lions, and dolphins. Occasionally, they will scavenge for whale carcasses and sporadically ingest sea turtles and sea birds.
As opportunistic predators, great white sharks have been known to take advantage of fishermen’s catches, occasionally getting caught in nets or hooks themselves.
Reproduction
Great white sharks grow slowly, with recent studies suggesting males reaching maturity around 26 years old and females at about 33 years old. This is a significant update from the once-believed 9-10 years for males and 14-16 years for females. Female great whites only give birth every two to three years.
Great white sharks reproduce by ovoviviparity – eggs are fertilized and develop inside the female’s body. A great white shark mother can have anywhere from 2 to 17 pups at a time, and these newborns are already over 1 meter (3 feet) long. Before being born, the unborn sharks might eat undeveloped eggs and even their siblings in a struggle for survival within the womb.
It is believed that a great white shark’s gestation period is around 12 months, with the mother usually giving birth in warmer waters. Unlike many sharks that lay eggs, great white sharks give birth to live young. The pups are independent and receive no support from their mother. Many do not survive their first year.
Behaviors
Hunting
Great white sharks typically swim alone or in pairs, though they may gather in groups during feeding. Their bodies are torpedo-shaped, equipped with powerful tails that enable them to reach speeds of up to 35 miles per hour in quick bursts, especially when lunging at prey.
The preferred hunting method of great white sharks involves a stealthy approach from below or behind. They position themselves beneath their target, then surge upwards to strike. Attacking from below offers strategic advantages: it’s harder for the prey to spot the shark coming, while the shark benefits from a clear view of its target above. Such attacks often result in the prey succumbing to blood loss, or the loss of critical body parts like fins.
Average speed near beaches
Although great white sharks can reach up to 35 mph, they tend to be slower near beaches. The average swim speed off beaches is 1.8 mph.
Competition
Great white sharks interact with each other to maintain personal space and compete for food. For instance, when two sharks are heading towards each other, one might make a timely turn to avoid collision, showing a behavior known as conspecific avoidance. Similarly, when swimming in the same direction, they keep a constant distance apart.
When targeting the same prey, white sharks might try to discourage each other by “tail slapping,” where a shark uses its tail to hit the water’s surface, splashing water to deter its competitor. Sometimes, a shark will block another from reaching the prey by positioning itself in between.
Importance to Humans
Film Industry
Films featuring great white sharks, most notably “Jaws” directed by Steven Spielberg in 1975, have been major box office successes. The success of the film and its depiction of a great white shark as the central antagonist spawned a new genre of horror and thriller movies focused on shark attacks. This has led to numerous films and franchises, contributing to the enduring fear of sharks.
This portrayal has had a profound impact on the public’s perception and reputation of these creatures. The negative portrayal has also contributed to conservation challenges. Sharks have been hunted and killed out of fear or for sport. This has overshadowed the fact that sharks, including great whites, are an essential part of marine ecosystems.
Trade
Great white sharks, despite their status as a protected species, are targeted for various parts of their bodies, which are used in a range of products and industries. The trade of great white shark parts includes their fins, jaws, teeth, meat, skin, and liver oil. The trade in great white shark parts has conservationists worried due to its impact on the species’ population and the marine ecosystem.
Fins
The fins of great white sharks are highly valued, particularly for the making of shark fin soup, a delicacy in some cultures. This demand saw a significant increase during the 1990s, making shark fins one of the most expensive products derived from fisheries.
Liver Oil
Shark liver oil has been used for centuries for its purported health benefits, derived from its high content of alkylglycerols and squalene. These compounds are believed to have several therapeutic properties, including boosting the immune system and wound healing.
Squalene, a hydrocarbon found in shark liver oil, is a popular ingredient in cosmetics and skin care products. It is known for its moisturizing properties and ability to help the skin retain moisture, leading to softer, more supple skin.
Jaws and Teeth
The jaws and teeth are often sought after by collectors and for display in museums as part of private collections, or as jewelry.
Skin
The skin of great white sharks is used to make leather. This tough material can be used in the manufacture of durable goods, including belts, wallets, and even bookbinding.
Meat
The meat of great white sharks is consumed by humans in some cultures. It is considered a source of protein, though it’s not as widely consumed or sought after as other shark products.
Danger to Humans
Great white sharks, along with tiger sharks and bull sharks, are listed among the top three shark species with the most unprovoked attacks on humans. Among these three species, great white sharks had the highest number of attacks:
- Great white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias): 351 total unprovoked attacks
- Tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier): 142 total unprovoked attacks
- Bull sharks (Carcharhinus leucas): 119 total unprovoked attacks
Despite the heightened perception of danger, actual incidents involving these sharks are exceedingly rare, especially when you consider the vast numbers of people who venture into the water. For comparison, falling coconuts are said to cause up to 150 deaths worldwide each year, a number that surpasses the global average of about six unprovoked shark-related fatalities annually.
Shark Tourism
Shark tourism, particularly involving great white sharks, has emerged as a growing sector within the wildlife tourism industry. This form of tourism allows individuals to encounter sharks in their natural habitat, often through cage diving or boat tours.
Shark tourism provides substantial revenue for local economies, especially in regions where great white sharks are prevalent, such as South Africa, Australia, and parts of the United States. According to studies, shark tourism generates $314 million per year while supporting nearly 10,000 jobs in local communities.
Captivity
Keeping great white sharks in captivity has proven to be exceptionally challenging and, more often than not, unsuccessful. Unlike many other shark species that have adapted well to life in aquariums, great white sharks require specific environmental conditions that are difficult to replicate.
Great white sharks are large, highly migratory species that traverse vast distances in the ocean. Captive environments can hardly accommodate their need for space, making it difficult for them to exhibit natural behaviors. Great whites in captivity often refuse to eat or cannot adjust to a non-natural diet.
Several aquariums around the world have attempted to keep great white sharks in captivity. Perhaps the most notable and successful attempts have been made by the Monterey Bay Aquarium in California. Their first attempt in 1984 ended after just 11 days when the shark passed away. However, they made significant progress by 2007, keeping a juvenile male shark for a remarkable 162 days. Another attempt in 2011 saw a great white shark on display for 55 days before its release back into the wild. The Monterey Bay Aquarium has decided not to keep any more great whites, explaining that their goal was always focused on research rather than long-term captivity.
Ecological Interactions
Predators
Great white sharks can fall prey to orcas and other larger sharks. Orcas are highly intelligent and employ social coordination in pods. They’ve been observed to flip a shark onto its back inducing tonic immobility – a state akin to temporary paralysis rendering the shark defenseless. Orcas are known to target the liver of great white sharks, which is rich in fats and a valuable energy source.
Parasites
Parasites of the white shark include many copepods like Nemesis lamna, Nesippus orientalis, Pandarus satyrus, Pandarus sinuatus, Pandarus bicolor, Echthrogaleus coleoptratus, Echthrogaleus denticulatus, Anthosoma crassum, Dinemoura latifolia, and Dinemoura producta. Ectoparasites and other parasitic worms like Abdominius irrisionis and Clistobothrium tumidum.
Conservation
Despite their reputation as fearsome apex predators, great white sharks are classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as vulnerable to extinction.
The population of great white sharks faces an overall decline due to their low reproduction rates and human persecution. The teeth of great white sharks are highly coveted for decorative purposes and jewelry, while their skin and fins are valued for making leather and culinary delicacies such as shark fin soup. Their liver and other parts of the shark are often used in traditional Chinese medicine. Additionally, great white sharks are sometimes deliberately targeted in shark culls or sought after as prestigious trophies.
Laws in the United States prohibit the retention and harvest of great white sharks. Occasionally, white sharks are inadvertently caught by recreational and commercial fishermen; however, regulations mandate their immediate release.
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- Estrada J., Rice A, Natanson L, Skomal G. 2006. Use of isotopic analysis of vertebrae in reconstructing ontogenetic feeding ecology in white sharks. Ecology, 87(4), 829–834. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2006)87[829:uoiaov]2.0.co;2
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- Hewitt G. 1979. Eight species of parasitic Copepoda on a white shark. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 13(1): 171. https://doi.org/10.1080/00288330.1979.9515790
- Hogans W., Dadswell M. 1985. Parasitic copepods of the white shark (Carcharodon carcharius L.) from the Bay of Fundy. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 63(3): 740-741. https://doi.org/10.1139/z85-106
- International Shark Attack File. 2022. Species Implicated in Attacks. Florida Museum.
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