Animals with Symbiotic Relationships
Symbiotic relationships (interactions between two different organisms) can be found throughout the ecosystem. These relationships can take various forms, including mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. This article will focus on various examples of symbiotic relationships between animals. It is important to note that predation, herbivory, and amensalism are not included as they are not typically characterized as long-term, intimate symbiotic relationships between organisms, but rather a form of ecological interaction.
Mutualism
Mutualism is a type of symbiotic relationship in which both organisms involved benefit from the interaction. It is like a secret handshake between two organisms – a special bond where both parties come out on top, a win-win situation.
Honey Bees & Flowers
Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism
One of the most common and overlooked symbiotic relationships is between bees and flowers. Bees rely on flowers as a source of food, specifically nectar, which they use to produce honey. In return, bees help flowers to reproduce by transferring pollen from one flower to another.
This process, known as pollination, is crucial for the survival of many plant species. Without bees, many plants would not be able to reproduce and would eventually become extinct.
Clownfish & Sea Anemones
Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism
The relationship between clownfish and sea anemones is a prime example of mutual symbiosis. The clownfish, also known as anemonefish, are immune to the stinging tentacles of the sea anemone, which are filled with stinging cells called ‘nematocysts.’
These fish can live safely within the tentacles and avoid predators, such as groupers, sharks, and barracuda. The mechanism for this immunity is not entirely understood, but it is believed that the clownfish is protected by a thick layer of mucus on the fish’s body.
In return for protection from predators, the clownfish provides various benefits to the sea anemone. They keep the anemone free of parasites, provide it with nutrients through its waste, and drive off intruders that may harm the anemone. The movement of the clownfish also helps to circulate water and oxygenate the sea anemone. Studies show that sea anemones inhabited by clownfish show faster growth!
Arboreal Ants & Acacia Trees
Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism
Another example of mutualism that has long captivated ecologists is the symbiotic interaction between arboreal ants and acacia trees. Like a benevolent host, the acacia tree offers its tiny guests a veritable feast of specialized structures, such as food bodies, nectar, and even hollow thorns that serve as cozy nests. In return, the ants tirelessly defend their host tree against a host of invaders, including herbivores, leaf-munching insects, and even competing plants.
But that’s not all, recent studies that the ants also act as the tree’s personal health squad, keeping harmful leaf pathogens in check and reducing bacterial growth on leaf surfaces. This results in visibly healthier and more robust acacia trees.
Indian Rhinoceros & Mynas
Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism
When you think of a rhinoceros, you probably don’t think of birds hanging out on their backs, but that’s exactly what happens in the wild!
Mynas love to eat insects and other small critters, and rhinos just happen to attract a lot of them. So, the mynas follow the rhinos around, picking off the tasty bugs that are stirred up by the rhino’s movement. But the mynas don’t just benefit from this relationship by getting an easy meal; they also help the rhinos in return. They remove ticks, horseflies, and other parasites from the rhino’s back and even warn when predators, such as tigers, approach.
Water Buffalos & Cattle Egrets
Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism
Cattle egrets can often be found perched on the back of water buffaloes, oxen, and cows in tropical and subtropical regions. Cattle egrets primarily subsist on insects, such as grasshoppers and flies, that are stirred up by the movement of herds of livestock. This behavior is beneficial to both the cattle and the egrets, as the cattle are protected from the annoyance and potential infection caused by these insects, while the egrets have a reliable food source.
These birds primarily forage on the ground in close proximity to cattle or other large mammals, focusing their attention primarily on the heads and feet of the animals. By doing so, they are able to capture a variety of insects that are flushed out by the mammals’ hooves and mouths.
Greater Honeyguides & Humans
Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism
In Africa, there’s a remarkable partnership between people and the honeyguide bird. These birds have an incredible ability to lead humans to bees’ nests, where they can harvest honey. This collaboration is particularly well-known among the Hadza people of Tanzania, who use special calls, passed down through generations, to attract the honeyguides. Without any formal training or domestication, these birds understand and respond to the calls, guiding the hunters directly to the nests.
Once at the bees’ nest, hunters use methods such as smoke to pacify the bees and collect the honey. It is estimated that up to 10% of Hadza’s diet is obtained through this partnership, and the assistance of the honeyguides has been shown to increase the success rate of finding bee colonies by an astounding 560%. The birds also receive their fair share by taking the leftover larvae and wax.
Despite anecdotal reports of honeyguides leading honey badgers to bees’ nests, scientific evidence to support these claims is limited. It is important to note that the relationship between honeyguides and honey badgers has yet to be substantiated by scientific research.
Sharks & Remoras
Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism
The remora fish, also known as the suckerfish, is a species of marine fish that typically grows to be between one and three feet in length. These fish have evolved to possess a suction cup-like organ on the top of their heads. This organ allows them to attach themselves to the sides and bellies of larger marine animals such as manta rays and sharks.
While attached to their host, remoras feed on parasites and any small pieces of parasites that the shark may have missed. This behavior not only keeps the shark clean but also prevents the growth of harmful bacteria and organisms on the shark’s skin, which otherwise would have caused irritations and infections on the shark.
However, this is not a one-sided relationship, as the remora also benefits from the presence of the shark. In addition to a free meal, remoras also gain transportation and protection from predators by attaching themselves to these extremely large marine animals. While most sharks do not mind, studies show that lemon sharks and sandbar sharks are known to dislike the presence of remoras.
Cleaner Shrimps & Groupers
Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism
Cleaner shrimp and large fish, like groupers, share a mutually beneficial relationship, akin to the partnership between remoras and sharks. These shrimp attract fish to their “cleaning stations” using their antennae, where they meticulously remove parasites from the fish’s skin, mouth, and gills. This interaction feeds the shrimp and, in turn, keeps the fish healthy and parasite-free.
Research is ongoing to explore the use of cleaner shrimps as an alternative to chemicals in aquaculture for farmed fish. Chemicals are commonly used to treat parasitic diseases in farmed fish, but cleaner fish are becoming increasingly popular as a biocontrol method. The peppermint cleaner shrimp, in particular, has been found to be an effective and sustainable candidate – reducing parasites by up to 98%!
Coyotes & Badgers
Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism
Badgers and coyotes are natural competitors for food, as they share a similar diet. However, ground squirrels or prairie dogs can be challenging prey to catch, as they stay close to their burrows. In such instances, these animals ally to increase their chances of hunting success.
Coyotes and badgers are both effective predators in the open grasslands, but they employ distinct hunting strategies. Coyotes typically chase their prey in the open, while badgers use their stealth to hide close to their burrows. This allows the coyote to capture prey that tries to escape above ground while the badger snatches prey that attempts to hide underground.
Research has shown that this collaborative effort increases the chances of obtaining food for both predators – coyotes that partner with badgers catch approximately one-third more prey than coyotes that hunt alone. Additionally, this approach is energy-efficient, as the animals do not have to search and chase their own prey individually.
Oxpeckers & Large Animals
Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism
The relationship between African oxpeckers and large animals like zebras, rhinos, giraffes, elephants, and hippos is mutualistic. The oxpeckers feed on ticks, flies, and other bugs on the animals’ skin, providing pest control for the host. In turn, the large animals offer a food source for the oxpeckers.
Studies have shown that both species of oxpeckers prefer to feed on larger mammals with a higher abundance of ticks. It is also believed that larger animals provide a more stable platform for the oxpeckers to forage and support more oxpeckers feeding simultaneously.
Unlike other birds and large mammal relationships, however, it has been suggested that oxpeckers may feed on the sores caused by ticks, which can delay the healing process and cause damage to the host. In this case, the relationship between the two species may not be entirely mutualistic but parasitic as well.
Pitcher Plants & Frogs
Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism
Pitcher plants are a type of carnivorous plant that have developed traps to capture and consume small insects and other small creatures. These plants are able to thrive in poor, acidic soil, which is not suitable for most other types of plants. However, pitcher plants have also developed symbiotic relationships with a variety of animals, including frogs.
The Matang narrow-mouthed frog (Microhyla nepenthicola) is one such frog species that have been found to live inside pitcher plants, specifically the flask-shaped pitcher plant (Nepenthes ampullaria) native to the jungles of Borneo. These frogs lay their eggs along the walls of the pitcher and use the liquid inside the plant to nurture their tadpoles. The plant also acts as a hideout and attracts insects for the frog. It is not fully clear if the plant also benefits from this relationship, but it is likely that the plant consumes the excreted nitrogen-rich waste produced by the frogs and tadpoles.
Ostriches & Zebras
Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism
Ostriches and zebras make an unlikely but successful team in the wild. They travel together, each bringing their strengths to the table: zebras have an excellent sense of smell and hearing, which ostriches lack, while ostriches contribute their keen eyesight, something zebras don’t have.
This arrangement makes them better equipped to spot predators such as lions, hyenas, and wild dogs, alerting each other to danger. This symbiotic relationship not only helps protect individual members of both species but also supports the overall health and longevity of their populations.
Hermit Crabs & Sea Anemones
Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism
The ocean is home to an unusual alliance between sea anemones and certain species of hermit crabs. The sea anemones attach themselves to the shells of hermit crabs and use their tentacles to capture leftover food from the hermit crab’s meals. Nonetheless, the hermit crab receives protection from the sea anemone’s barbed tentacles, which defend against predators such as octopuses and other potential threats to its host. The host crab also defends the sea anemone from predators, such as starfish and fireworms.
Interestingly, this relationship is not accidental, as hermit crabs actively seek out sea anemones to attach to their shells. When the hermit crab outgrows its old shell, it will transfer the sea anemone to its new home. The relationship is so vital that hermit crabs will steal sea anemones from other crabs when food is scarce.
Unfortunately, this relationship is not without betrayals. When the hermit crabs are starving, they may prey on the anemones attached to their shell.
Colombian Lesser Black Tarantulas & Humming Frogs
Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism
One of the most interesting symbiotic relationships in the animal kingdom is the one between the Colombian lesser black tarantula and the humming frog. Both of these creatures are native to South America and have formed a bond that defies the expectations of many experts.
The Colombian lesser black tarantula is a formidable predator, and the humming frog is a small and relatively defenseless creature. However, instead of preying on the frog, the tarantula allows it to share its burrow and even offers it protection from other predators. The frog, in turn, feeds on small insects such as ants and fly larvae, which can be a danger to the tarantula and its eggs, especially during the molting process.
Gobies & Pistol Shrimps
Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism
These two species form a bond that lasts a lifetime. Gobies and pistol shrimps bond and remain partners from a young age and throughout their adulthood, spending their days foraging together and sharing a burrow. The pistol shrimp digs and maintains burrows in the sandy seafloor, which provides a safe haven for both creatures, protecting them from potential predators.
On the other hand, the shrimp relies on the goby’s keen eyesight to detect potential threats. This symbiotic relationship is further reinforced by the fact that the goby is always the first to venture outside the burrow, signaling to the shrimp that it is safe to do so. Additionally, the shrimp benefits from an increase in food, such as algae and parasites.
Monarch Caterpillars & Milkweeds
Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism
The interaction between Monarch caterpillars and milkweed plants is well-established and widely studied. Both organisms are commonly found in North America, with milkweed being prevalent in the eastern United States and prairie states, as well as in eastern Canada along roadsides.
Milkweed plants have a clever defense against hungry animals like sheep and cattle. They release a toxic white latex when nibbled on, which usually keeps these grazers at bay. However, the monarch butterfly thrives on this very plant and have evolved mechanisms that allow them to consume the nectar in milkweed flowers and the latex-filled leaves.
Female monarchs carefully lay their eggs on the underside of milkweed leaves. The emerging caterpillars feast on the leaves, unharmed by the plant’s toxic defenses. During the process they collect pollen, which they then transfer to other plants.
Warthogs & Mongooses
Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism
In the African savannas, warthogs can be seen with mongooses. The warthogs, who are often troubled by parasites, actively seek out the grooming services of mongooses. This is observed when warthogs lie down in the dirt in the presence of mongooses, allowing the mongooses to nibble at their tough skin and pick off ticks and other parasites.
As a result, the warthogs get a much-needed grooming and the mongooses get a meal. In this way, both animals benefit from this mutually beneficial relationship.
Commensalism
Commensalism is a type of symbiotic relationship where one species benefits from the association while the other species is neither helped nor harmed. It’s like having a roommate who never cooks but always eats your food – you may not mind, but they’re definitely getting the better end of the deal!
Dung Beetles & Asian Elephants
Type of Symbiosis: Commensalism
Asian elephants and dung beetles have a commensalistic relationship, in which the beetles benefit from the presence of the elephants without affecting them in any way. Dung beetles, a prevalent insect found in Afrotropical rainforests, feed and breed on the undigested plant matter present in elephant dung. On the other hand, Asian elephants seem to have no impact on this beetle and waste interaction.
There are many uses of elephant dung, based on how the dung beetles are categorized depending if they are rollers, tunnelers, or dwellers. Rollers form food balls from dung and bury them for use in feeding and breeding. Tunnelers create underground chambers and construct nests beneath the dung. Meanwhile, dwellers breed within the dung pat itself. These beetles also use the dung produced by other forest vertebrates, including other mammals, birds, and reptiles.
Antbirds & Army Ants
Type of Symbiosis: Commensalism
Army ants and antbirds have a symbiotic relationship where the birds follow the ants in search of food. As the ants march through the forest, they consume all the insects in their path, causing some insects to flee and fly into the vicinity of the antbirds. The birds then easily catch these insects and consume them. This behavior is beneficial for the birds, while the ants doesn’t seem bothered, as it allows the ants to forage for food without interference.
One question that often arises is whether the birds also consume the army ants. While some studies have found traces of army ants in the stomachs of the birds, it is believed to be accidental consumption, known as by-catch, as the birds primarily consume insects that are covered with army ants. However, the exact relationship between the birds and the ants is still being studied.
Golden Jackals & Tigers
Type of Symbiosis: Commensalism
Wild dogs, known as golden jackals, have been observed following tigers in their natural habitat. These jackals cautiously trail behind tigers, taking advantage of the tiger’s kills by feeding on leftover prey. In rare instances, the jackal may even alert the tiger to the presence of a potential meal.
However, this behavior does not constitute a mutualistic relationship, as the tiger does not actively assist the jackal or benefit from the jackal’s presence. Rather, it is a commensalism relationship in which one species benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed. Additionally, it has been noted that jackals may also scavenge from kills made by other predators, such as dholes and wolves.
Parasitism
Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship in which one organism, called the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other organism, called the host. The host is harmed in some way, either through the loss of nutrients, energy, or even death. It’s like a freeloader who crashes at a friend’s house, eating all the food, outstaying their welcome, and using all the resources without contributing anything in return.
Barnacles & Sea Turtles
Type of Symbiosis: Parasitism
Sea turtles may seem like peaceful creatures gliding gracefully through the ocean, but they also have to contend with a sneaky enemy – barnacles. While most barnacles are harmless, some have a parasitic streak. These barnacles latch onto the turtle’s shells and skin or even burrow into its flesh, causing discomfort and opening the door for further infections.
Removing these barnacles is a difficult task, as they can grow quite large and add weight to the turtle’s shell, slowing it down in the water and making it harder for the turtle to forage for food and avoid predators. They can be found most commonly on the turtle’s fore flippers, where they can only add to the turtle’s troubles.
Zombie-Ant Fungus & Formicine Ants
Type of Symbiosis: Parasitism
The symbiotic relationship between organisms can be a terrifying one, as seen in the case of the zombies-ant fungus (Ophiocordyceps unilateralis). This specialized parasite infects and manipulates formicine ants, primarily in tropical and warm temperate forest ecosystems in regions such as Thailand, Brazil, Central America, and Africa.
The fungus alters the behavioral patterns of the infected ant, causing them to leave their canopy nests and foraging trails for the forest floor, where the temperature and humidity are suitable for fungal growth. The ant then attaches itself to a leaf vein and dies in a matter of 4-10 days as the fungus digests it. As the fungus digests the ant, it forms a fruitbody from which it spreads its spores to infect the next generation of ant prey.
The areas where infected ants die are known as “graveyards,” as they are found in regions containing a high density of previously manipulated and killed ants.
Tarantula Wasps & Tarantulas
Type of Symbiosis: Parasitism
Tarantula wasps, also known as spider wasps, possess one of the most painful stings in the insect world, second only to that of bullet ants. However, their relationship with tarantulas is equally as gruesome.
When a female tarantula wasp is ready to lay eggs, it seeks out a tarantula. Using its venomous sting, the wasp paralyzes the spider before laying eggs within its body. The eggs hatch into larvae, which begin to feed on the still-living host, avoiding vital organs in order to prolong the spider’s life. As the larvae grow and develop, they eventually pupate and eventually emerge as young adult wasps, ready to continue the life cycle.
Trichinella Worms & Mammals
Type of Symbiosis: Parasitism
Trichinella is a genus of parasitic roundworms that infects various mammals, including humans, rodents, pigs, horses, and wild game. These worms are primarily acquired by consuming raw or undercooked meat from hosts that have been previously infected, particularly pork.
When the roundworms enter the stomach, the acidity of gastric acid helps the produced larvae release from their cysts. The larvae then bore through the intestinal wall, entering the blood and lymphatic system, and are carried to the muscles. Through its parasitic behavior, Trichinella obtains essential nutrients from its host for survival.
To reduce the risk of human infection from Trichinella-contaminated meat, the USDA has established guidelines for specific cooking temperatures, freezing temperatures, and curing methods for processed pork products.
Ticks & Mammals
Type of Symbiosis: Parasitism
Ticks are small arachnids with a symbiotic parasitic relationship with various animals, including mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. These tiny creatures attach themselves to the host animal’s skin using their sharp mouthparts to pierce the skin and feed on the host’s blood.
This parasitic relationship provides the tick with the necessary nutrients to survive and reproduce, while the host animal, including humans, may experience symptoms such as itching, rashes, and even serious diseases such as Lyme disease. Ticks are one of the most significant vectors for transmitting vector-borne pathogens and are second only to mosquitoes.
You May Also Like
- How humans and wild birds collaborate to get precious resources of honey and wax. 2016. University of Cambridge.
- Mikula, P., Hadrava, J., Albrecht, T., & Tryjanowski, P. 2018. Large-scale assessment of commensalistic-mutualistic associations between African birds and herbivorous mammals using internet photos. PeerJ, 6, e4520. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4520
- Danielle A. Pereira, Márcio V. Ramos, Diego P. Souza, Tereza C.L. Portela, Jorge A. Guimarães, Socorro V.F. Madeira, Cleverson D.T. Freitas. 2010. Digestibility of defense proteins in latex of milkweeds by digestive proteases of Monarch butterflies, Danaus plexippus L.: A potential determinant of plant–herbivore interactions. Plant Science 179 (4): 348-355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2010.06.009.
- Kumlien A. Carlson S. 2006. Ophiocordyceps unilateralis Habitat. University of Wisconsin – La Crosse.
- Birds Follow Army Ants to Find Prey. 2007. National Science Foundation.
- Vinod, K. V., & Sabu, T. K. 2007. Species composition and community structure of dung beetles attracted to dung of gaur and elephant in the moist forests of South Western Ghats. Journal of insect science (Online), 7, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1673/031.007.5601
- Dean, W. R. J., Siegfried, W. R., & MacDonald, I. A. W. 1990. The Fallacy, Fact, and Fate of Guiding Behavior in the Greater Honeyguide. Conservation Biology, 4(1), 99–101. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2385968
- Kamler, J. F., Minge, C., Rostro-García, S., Gharajehdaghipour, T., Crouthers, R., In, V., Pay, C., Pin, C., Sovanna, P., & Macdonald, D. W. 2021. Home range, habitat selection, density, and diet of golden jackals in the Eastern Plains Landscape, Cambodia. Journal of mammalogy, 102(2), 636–650. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyab014
- Ramirez, S., Calkins, J. 2014. Symbiosis in Goby Fish and Alpheus Shrimp. Reed College.
- New frog species discovered – the pitcher plant dweller from Borneo. 2021. Naturhistorisches Museum Bern.
- Roux, N., Lami, R., Salis, P. et al. 2019. Sea anemone and clownfish microbiota diversity and variation during the initial steps of symbiosis. Sci Rep 9, 19491. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-55756-w
- Poethig S. Leichty A. Janzen D. 2019. Timing is everything for the mutualistic relationship between ants and acacias. University of Pennsylvania.
- Marcia González-Teuber, Martin Kaltenpoth, Wilhelm Boland. Mutualistic ants as an indirect defence against leaf pathogens. New Phytologist, 2014; DOI: 10.1111/nph.12664
- Vafeiadou, AM., Antoniadou, C. & Chintiroglou, C. 2012. Symbiosis of sea anemones and hermit crabs: different resource utilization patterns in the Aegean Sea. Helgol Mar Res 66, 385–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10152-011-0279-7
- Minta, S. C., Minta, K. A., & Lott, D. F. 1992. Hunting Associations between Badgers (Taxidea taxus) and Coyotes (Canis latrans). Journal of Mammalogy, 73(4), 814–820. https://doi.org/10.2307/1382201
- Nunn CL, Ezenwa VO, Arnold C, Koenig WD. Mutualism or parasitism? Using a phylogenetic approach to characterize the oxpecker-ungulate relationship. Evolution. 2011 May;65(5):1297-304. doi: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2010.01212.x. Epub 2011 Jan 19. PMID: 21166791.
- Parasites – Trichinellosis (also known as Trichinosis). 2019. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
- Hughes DP, Andersen SB, Hywel-Jones NL, Himaman W, Billen J, Boomsma JJ. Behavioral mechanisms and morphological symptoms of zombie ants dying from fungal infection. BMC Ecol. 2011 May 9;11:13. doi: 10.1186/1472-6785-11-13. PMID: 21554670; PMCID: PMC3118224.